Fluid Dynamics
What is fluid dynamics?
In physics, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow. Fluid dynamics is one of the most important of all areas of physics.
Key Facts
- in states that all mass flow rates into a control volume are equal to all mass flow rates out of the control volume plus the rate of mass change within the control volume.
- can be considered a statement of the conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids.
- The is one of the characteristic numbers used for predicting whether a flow condition will be or . It is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
- of the hydraulic system is divided into two main categories:
- – due to friction in straight pipes
- – due to components as valves, bends…
- can be used to calculate major losses. The for fluid flow can be determined using a .
- In , is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any moving object. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction.
- By definition, is the interactive flow of two or more distinct phases with common interfaces in, say, a conduit.
- are devices used to transport fluids by converting rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow.
Thermodynamics
What is thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with energy production, storage, transfer, and conversion. It studies the effects of , , and on a system. Despite the fact it is a very broad subject that affects most fields of science, including biology and microelectronics, we will concern mostly with large-scale observations.
Key Facts
- In physics and everyday life, a is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold based on our sense of touch. This definition is not a simple matter. The kinetic theory of gases provides a microscopic explanation of temperature. It is based on the fact that during an between a molecule with high kinetic energy and one with low kinetic energy, part of the energy will transfer to the molecule of lower kinetic energy.
- is generally defined as the potential to do work or produce heat. Sometimes it is like the “currency” for performing work. You must have the energy to accomplish work. To do 1 kilojoule of work, you must expend 1 kilojoule of energy.
- The is the sum of the internal energy E plus the product of the pressure p and volume V.
- define fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy) and characterize thermodynamic systems at .
- The is used to predict the behavior of gases and is one of the most useful and commonly used substance models ever developed.
- A is defined as a change from one equilibrium macrostate to another macrostate. The initial and final states are the defining elements of the process.
- The typical consists of a series of transferring heat and work while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to its initial state.
- Today, the is the fundamental operating cycle of all thermal power plants where an operating fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed.
Heat Transfer
What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer is an engineering discipline that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat (thermal energy) between physical systems. In power engineering, it determines key parameters and materials of heat exchangers.
Key Facts
- is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference. Heat is a form of energy, but it is energy in transit.
- Heat transfer is usually classified into various mechanisms, such as:
- . Heat conduction, also called diffusion, occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact. It is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems.
- . Heat convection depends on the motion of mass from one region of space to another. Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid.
- . Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no need to be present in the space between bodies.
- states that the time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows.
- states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small, and the nature of radiating surface remains the same.
- states that radiation heat transfer rate, q [W/m2], from a body (e.g.,, a black body) to its surroundings is proportional to the fourth power of the .
- differ from other forms of convection in that they depend on the latent heat of vaporization, which is very high for common . Therefore large amounts of heat can be transferred during boiling and condensation essentially at a constant temperature.
- are devices used to transfer from one fluid to another without mixing the two fluids.
- To minimize in industry and also in the construction of buildings, is widely used. Thermal insulation aims to reduce the by adding material with low .
Nuclear engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with applying and and applying other sub-atomic physics based on principles. Nuclear engineering generally deals with applying in various branches, including , naval propulsion systems, food production, or medical diagnostic equipment such as MRI machines.
Our goal here will be to introduce the engineering of , and deal with topics like fluid dynamics, power plant thermodynamics, reactor heat generation and removal (single-phase and two-phase coolant flow and heat transfer), materials in nuclear engineering, and structural mechanics.
Thermal-Hydraulic Considerations
A nuclear power plant (nuclear power station) looks like a standard thermal power station with one exception. The heat source in the is a . As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations, the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity. But in nuclear power plants, reactors produce an enormous amount of heat (energy) in a small volume. The density of the energy generation is very large, which puts demands on its heat transfer system (reactor coolant system). Therefore we have to start with the reactor heat generation and removal from the reactor.
For a reactor to operate in a steady state, all of the heat released in the system must be removed as fast as it is produced. This is accomplished by passing a liquid or ga搜索引擎优化us coolant through the and through other regions where heat is generated. The heat transfer must be equal to or greater than the heat generation rate or overheating, and possible damage to the fuel may occur. The nature and operation of this coolant system are some of the most important considerations in designing a nuclear reactor.
Material Considerations
The temperature in an operating reactor varies from point to point within the system. Consequently, there is always one fuel rod and one local volume hotter than all the rest. Peak power limits must be introduced to limit these hot places. The peak power limits are associated with a boiling crisis and conditions that could cause fuel pellet melt. However, metallurgical considerations place upper limits on the temperature of the fuel cladding and the fuel pellet. Above these temperatures, there is a danger that the fuel may be damaged. One of the major objectives in the design of nuclear reactors is to remove the heat produced at the desired power level while assuring that the maximum fuel temperature and the maximum cladding temperature are always below these predetermined values.
It must be noted that theoretically, there is no upper limit to the power level (from the point of view), which can be attained by any having sufficient excess of to overcome its negative temperature coefficient. Nuclear reactors must be equipped with proper safety systems to avoid undesirable power changes.